Elementary Education Archives - Page 10 of 11

April 24, 2017

What Preschool Can Teach Us About Choice and Opportunity

There is a pantheon of sitcom cliches that, no matter how many times they’ve been done before, always turn up in new ones. Among the repeat offenders: outrageously stressful wedding planning, pregnancy and baby delivery hi-jinks, new parents shopping for the “perfect” preschool, arguments over dolls vs footballs, and how these early childhood influences will determine the baby’s entire future from school choice to occupation and social status.

The sad reality is that the last two of these absurd situations have a kernel of truth. Does getting into the right preschool really determine whether a given child will go to the best university? Probably not; but when everything from friend groups to hobbies can factor into college admissions — and attending college can determine future career opportunities and professional networks — it is easy to see how major decisions can blur into the web of minor decisions surrounding a child’s future.

Early Childhood Competition

Everything concerning kids in America has gotten more competitive, starting early in their lives. Competition for better-paying (and future-proof) careers leads to more intense competition for any professional advantage at school. Getting into the best schools (by any of a number of definitions of “best”) heaps more pressure on kids while they are still in high school. From participating in sports to getting into AP classes, high school today eschews recreation in favor of workaholism and manicured student resumes.

Altogether, life for modern kids looks less like a series of choices and opportunities, and more like a long line of dominoes, set up and and sent cascading over within weeks of their birth, if not before. How can parents possibly hope to line them up just right for success and happiness?

But the problem isn’t just the hyper-competitive atmosphere surrounding the university system, and all the inputs considered in admitting or rejecting students; it is the preoccupation with the importance of college education in the first place.

When it comes to preparing children for the challenges and opportunities of adulthood, part of the messaging we need to fix — and soon — is the idea of ”college above all others”. Tuition prices have exploded in part because demand has exploded. Even historically mid-range schools face a demand beyond their capacity. For-profit schools have had lucrative success in taking advantage of this gold-rush mentality toward degrees, even as their students fail to graduate and default on their student loans in droves. More than a third of all defaults can be attributed to students from for-profit schools, even though they are just 26 percent of borrowers.

Trading School for Something That Works

The most common jobs in America today are retailers, cashiers, and fast-food workers. None of these requires any advanced education. Even filtering opportunity in terms of careers which require some minimum of post-secondary schooling and licensure, there are nearly as many truck drivers as there are nurses. If that comparison seems inappropriate, consider that trucking can be as essential to providing healthcare as nursing: nurses can hardly hope to treat a patient if they lack the necessary supplies and equipment on which they rely.

Trucking actually exemplifies the disconnect we, as a nation, have between the pressure we put on our youth to get educated, and the limitations we construct around how they “contribute” to our collective wealth and well-being. Without truck drivers, there is no clean water, no medicine, no food, and no consumer goods for a vast majority of Americans. But the career path into trucking — as with most skilled trades — takes people somewhere outside the world of universities and degrees.

The same impact trucking has, collectively, can be attributed to electricians, plumbers, and other skilled trades on which the modern world relies, yet bestows no particular social capital. Without electricians, all the gizmos and apps of Apple and Google, two of the world’s wealthiest corporations, would be useless. Without plumbing, our entire healthcare industry would be less preoccupied with inventing the next miracle pill or pushing the boundaries of surgical medicine than it would be with mitigating disease spread by poor sanitation. We are not so insulated from these alternatives as the popular imagination would assume; just ask the folks in Flint, Michigan whether plumbing is a worthwhile vocation.

The Value of Education

None of this disputes the intrinsic value of education, or the importance of giving students opportunity by expanding their access to learning. Rather, it points out how we’ve undermined our own drive to provide kids with the best chance in life by undervaluing the careers, and educational pathways, they might well follow to find their own form of success.

Trade school isn’t just a viable option, it can be downright lucrative, as well as rewarding, secure, and meaningful. But, as with all other things, planting that idea means having the conversation earlier, and undoing the damage of generations of parents and professionals marginalizing the trades that keep America running. Universities aren’t a solution to any of America’s challenges. They are merely one of a spectrum of options people face in deciding where they want to make their mark on the world, contribute to the maintenance and advancement of society, and find both purpose and acceptance among their peers.

The more parents encourage their kids to see the alternatives to college as equally worthy, the more the national conversation will pivot away from how we can give kids a leg up on the competition. At a time when our nation’s youth could feasibly have more options to learn, create, and work than at any time in history, it is absurd that they should be under such extreme pressure to conform to the parameters of a few selective universities.

The old sitcom trope of shopping for a prestigious preschool needs to die — not just for the sake of television comedy, but to reflect a society that celebrates the diversity it already possesses.

April 4, 2017

Using Technology to Inspire Reluctant Readers

Every teacher has dealt with students who don’t like reading. These students, often called “reluctant readers”, can present a real challenge for even the most experienced teachers. As the old saying goes, you can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink. So it goes for reluctant readers—you can’t force them to read.

You can, however, get them excited about reading. One way teachers are getting reluctant readers engaged is through technology. Technology has produced several alternatives to the traditional style of reading. By using technology, many teachers are able to get students who hate reading to do it.

E-readers motivate and assist reluctant readers

The biggest change that technology has brought to reading is the shift from print text to digital text. Many students are excited by the idea of using tablets or e-readers to read. While the mere sight of a chapter book makes certain students groan, those same students’ eyes light up when they see an electronic device. Although reading on a Kindle or Nook is almost exactly the same as reading a traditional book, the simple change in medium can make it feel more fun for students.

For students who struggle with reading due to dyslexia, e-readers can help in a major way. A new study suggests that readers with dyslexia have an easier time with e-readers. Students can also change the font size and type on an e-reader, which may make it easier to read for students with dyslexia or vision problems.

E-readers also offer a variety of helpful tools. Most e-readers allow users to click on a word and get a definition. Apps designed with students in mind often include features like read-aloud or translation to other languages. These features can make reading less intimidating for struggling readers and allow them to enjoy reading with less frustration.

Such features help teachers scaffold their instruction. While a particular text may be too difficult for some students to read on their own, teachers can push students to read using the assistive features on an e-reader. For example, a student who is an English language learner might be too advanced for some texts, but not quite ready to move on to a higher level text due to the difficult vocabulary. With translation features on most e-readers, that student could try a more advanced text, using the translator for difficult vocabulary words.

Audio books get students reading

Another option for reluctant readers is to listen instead of read. While the ultimate goal should be to get students reading on their own, audio books can be a good start. The popular app Audible offers thousands of audio books that users can listen to on their computer, tablet, or smartphone.

Teachers can encourage students to follow along with a print or digital version while listening to the audio. Listening and tracking text is a strategy teachers have been teaching for decades. With audio books, students can do it even when there’s nobody there to read to them.

Enhanced e-books for elementary students

E-books aren’t always just a digital version of the same text. Reading apps that are designed for kids, like Meegenius, are changing the way we think about e-books. These apps offer a variety of illustrated children’s books in digital format. Students can read the text themselves, or follow along with word-by-word highlighting while the app provides audio.

Some apps also offer enhanced versions of books. Illustrations can come to life on the screen, or students can play interactive games that relate to the text. These extra features can help reluctant readers get excited about books.

How do you use technology to inspire reluctant readers? What cool apps and devices can get students excited about reading?

March 27, 2017

10 Podcasts That Promote Reading

Just like listening to audiobooks through electronic devices, podcasts are becoming more and more popular. These iPod-based audio broadcasts encompass a wide variety of subjects, such as entrepreneurship, politics, history, to entertaining series on serial killers. These downloadable series can be subscribed to, so you automatically get the next installment. However, podcasts can be utilized in the classroom, especially to promote literacy.

Not all students enjoy reading, nor are all students visual learners. Using audiobooks in conjunction with hard copies has long been a practice in classrooms to engage all students. However, podcasts offer something more. For example, English teacher Michael Godsey used the popular podcast Serial in his classroom because “he was impressed by the critical thinking and engagement he saw from students. He also liked that students were having deep discussions about the stories with other adults who were listening to the same podcasts” (source).

By using podcasts in conjunction with their transcripts, or by finding engaging podcasts that discuss books benefit students’ different learning styles. Podcasts bring together reading, writing, analysis, listening, language and many other ELA Common Core Standards (source). Here is a list of 10 podcasts that promote reading.

Serial

This very popular two-season podcast is about real murder mysteries. The podcast unfolds the story week by week and makes it suspenseful. You can purchase Michael Godsey’s unit plan he created specifically to teach Serial in English classes. According to Godsey, “What’s terrific about studying Serial is that it engages students in a contemporary story which is actually more conducive to teaching the standards than a classic novel. Students get to practice their reading, listening and problem-solving skills by seeking out primary sources (such as maps, voice recordings, letters and other multimedia resources). This is a great unit for project-based learning (PBL).” He has also aligned his unit plan with ELA Common Core Standards.

Reading Without Walls

American Born Chinese author, Gene Luen Yang, is a National Ambassador for Young People’s Literature. Yang’s mission is to get children to read books with someone on the cover that doesn’t look like them, topics that children find intimidating, and formats that they’ve never tried. In his video podcasts, he interviews authors of children’s and young adult books to get students interested in reading them.

Children’s Fun Storytime

This audio podcast does dramatic readings of children classic stories, such as The Little Engine that Could, Alice in Wonderland, and different fairy tales written by the Grimm brothers. This is the perfect broadcast for elementary school children to listen to while following along with their own copy of the book.

Poem of the Day

When you are teaching poetry to your students, Poem of the Day is the perfect audio podcast. It has professional readings of classical poems.

Bookwink

To get students grades 3-8 interested in new books, use this video podcast. Former librarian Sonja Cole discusses books that she likes as well as read-alouds for that specific book.

ESL

If you are an English as Second Language teacher, the ESL website has a weekly podcast that includes everyday topics to help those learning English.

Classic Poetry Aloud Index

This poetry podcast has over 300 poems by 80 poets. You can use the website to search by poet or theme for the perfect poem to teach your class. Print out the poem for students to follow along while they listen to the podcast.

Book Club for Kids

Book Club for Kids is a unique podcast because not only does it discuss a different young adult book every week, but the discussions are done by children. These children also interview the book’s author and allow a celebrity reader to read portions of the book. This podcast is geared towards children 9-14. It’ll help students get interested in reading because they will see children their own age being excited about books.

The Guardian Children’s Books

According to their website, The Guardian Children’s Books visual podcast’s purpose is to be “the place for bibliophiles to meet and quiz their literary heroes. It’s a fun listen full of passionate young readers asking their favorite author’s brilliantly insightful questions.”

MuggleCast

And, of course, what list on literary podcasts would be complete without having at least one Harry Potter based podcast? This podcast really allows Harry Potter fans to dive deeper into the book series by discussing the books, theories, imagery, themes, and character development.

Conclusion

By giving students another format to introduce books or read books to them, they will become more engaged with the literature. Podcasts will open their minds to different ways of analyzing what they read.

March 6, 2017

Leading for Literacy

By Ruth Schoenbach and Cynthia Greenleaf

Every day, middle and high school teachers ask their students to read and understand complex texts in disciplines such as history, literature, biology, or economics. Such reading is foundational to student success in school, the workplace, and in civic life. Yet, national tests results and our own eyes tell us that the majority of high school students aren’t getting it.

How can teachers and administrators create classrooms where students routinely engage with challenging material, think critically about texts, synthesize information from multiple sources, and effectively communicate what they have learned? And how can we spread and sustain innovative practices beyond a few classrooms?

Tackling adolescent literacy challenges is no easy lift for schools. For one thing, subject-area teachers have their plates full with the demands of covering and assessing large amounts of subject-matter content. Many teachers see any request to “teach reading in your subject area” as beyond their responsibility—and skill set. That’s understandable given how little time there is for teacher collaboration and learning.

But hundreds of middle and high schools, districts, and colleges (especially open-admissions institutions) have taken up the challenge—and have been able to create cultures of literacy. They have classrooms where teachers and students work together to identify comprehension problems, tap and elicit critical dispositions known to support learning (like curiosity, courage, stamina, and persistence), and use an array of evidence-based instructional approaches and discourse routines to collaboratively make sense of complex disciplinary texts.

Our new book, Leading for Literacy: A Reading Apprenticeship Approach, and an open webinar we are offering on March 8, show how they’ve done it. The book is based on what we’ve learned from 25 years of implementing Reading Apprenticeship, a framework for helping schools and districts transform how literacy is taught.

The Reading Apprenticeship framework builds on teachers’ existing knowledge and expertise and provides structured opportunities for them to explore their own reading and comprehension processes as they, themselves, struggle with challenging texts. The insights they gain—through training and participating in ongoing learning communities—broadens their mindsets about what students are capable of doing and provides the foundation for apprenticing students to reading, writing, thinking, and speaking in the different disciplines.

Teachers build a culture of inquiry in their classrooms by teaching students how to work individually and as a group to conduct metacognitive conversations that help them take on rigorous texts, regardless of the subject matter. The goal is to have students learn to take control of their learning.

This approach is effective at the school and college classroom levels and as scaled across institutions and systems. The evidence of federally funded randomized controlled studies, shows positive, statistically significant effects for students whose teachers participated in Reading Apprenticeship professional development.

Ultimately, the success of the program depends on leadership from teachers, principals, and advocates for students, for whom creating a culture of literacy requires:

political cover on the part of site and district administrators to protect teams and their time from external challenges;
new structures, such as dedicated literacy teams and communities of practice;
dedicated time—and more of it—to engage in high-quality professional learning, professional collaboration, and problem solving with colleagues;
a focus on inquiry, which encourages and supports sharing and exploring questions and observations as a group;
community partnerships, to build support for more time spent on reading and literacy development in the schools; and
teacher-led advocacy that is strength based and solution driven.

Leading for Literacy presents portraits, case studies, research findings, and key insights from scores of practitioners, and details how to get started, build momentum, assess progress, generate partnerships, and sustain networks across schools, districts, college campuses, and regions. It is more important than ever for schools to advance better approaches to literacy instruction. Why not rewrite the script at your school?

Ruth Schoenbach and Cynthia Greenleaf are co-directors of the WestEd Strategic Literacy Initiative, and, Lynn Murphy, co-authors of Leading for Literacy: A Reading Apprenticeship Approach (Wiley/Jossey-Bass, December 2016).

February 26, 2017

The Cautionary Tale of Story

Teachers have been telling stories for as long as teachers have taught others. Students are still learning from the stories of our greatest teachers thousands of years later like Plato, Confucius, and Jesus, as examples. But that makes story sound like a classic “old school” pedagogical method, and that is not the characterization I think we should promote.

Narrative is our primary tool for understanding the world around us, and it is a fundamental tool in our ability to processes information.

Yet despite our cultural belief in the importance of story as a teaching tool we really don’t use it much anymore. We all have our students read stories, and most of us still carve out time to read aloud to our students, but few of us use stories as a tool to explain or highlight concepts outside of those to platforms.

I spend a great deal of my research time looking for ways to integrate lessons. I do this because I believe – one, that the real world is integrated and education should follow suit, and two, that it is the only way to meet the growing list of demands on teaching time.

I have come to believe that one of the strongest threads tying all our curricula together is story.

Our focus on data, the science of pedagogy and the hard Common Core push into nonfiction, have left us with sharp, versatile tools, and little desire to use them. Those things do make a difference but they are not the difference. The difference is our ability to add to our student’s story. I think we have forgotten the importance of story.

Wait, DON’T STOP READING…. NOT yet, give me at least one maybe even two more paragraphs before you drop this as a rambling rant.

An example: A couple of years ago a fifth grade science class I was working with was struggling with the concept of mass.

We expected some of them to get stuck on this as mass is tricky. Weight is easy enough, but the difference between mass and weight is still shaky in most of student’s heads. To be honest most teachers gloss over it because it’s shaky for them as well. So I shared the story of Archimedes and the King’s crown.

Archimedes, brings the concept of mass alive with a “Eureka” moment and a naked street dance that no 5^th grader will easily forget.

Another example: Using my new idea to teach with a story I prepared and then set a trap in math class. And when the complaints and questions about the practicality of our lesson came up, I shared the story of Abraham Wald, who saved hundreds of American pilots in WW2 and explained math is about interrogating the questions asked and the information available to get answers.

Just one more: Oxygen and the elements in general are not truly abstract, but for most if not all of our students they can be. Asking, or even expecting them to jump into STEM classes without seeding their curiosity with story can be a tough sell.

But having them listen to how and why Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen offers insight, understanding and examples of how difficult and how important understanding the unseen can be.

Great teaching has always been centered on giving the student a reason to be curious and teaching them how to explore. I’m convinced stories are where the best seeds of curiosity come from.

February 5, 2017

The Edvocate’s List of 20 Must-Follow K-12 Education Twitter Feeds

*The Edvocate is pleased to produce its “Best of the Best” resource lists. These lists provide our readers with rankings for education-related blogs, twitter accounts, influencers, products, etc. These lists are meant to be fluid, and for that reason, they are regularly updated to provide up to the moment information.*

The formative years can be a challenge for teachers, and it does not get any easier as students become increasingly independent. Sometimes it is good to hear about other teachers’ trying experiences because it can help put your day into perspective. Some days you are simply too tired to do much apart from stare off at your computer screen and wonder how things could have been handled differently.

Instead of aimlessly wondering through social media, we’ve pulled together a list of Twitter feeds that can actually help you. There is nothing like sympathy to make a hard day a little easier to manage, or a little humor to put you in a different frame of mind. Advice within the education field is almost always welcome too because there is nearly no problem that you are dealing with that some teacher or administrator hasn’t already dealt with.

There are two things that each of these feeds has.

They are relevant to the area of K to 12, at least some of the time. Not all of these are dedicated to this age range, but they deal with them periodically. Others may focus on a particular age group, but they can be applicable to nearly any student at any level.
These feeds are updated often enough to be helpful. When you want to visit a feed for solace, advice, or inspiration, you don’t want to be disappointed that there hasn’t been anything added for months.

#1 Edutopia

#2 We Are Teachers

#3 Vicki Davis

#4 Tom Whitby

#5 Randi Weingarten

#6 Larry Ferlazzo

#7 Teaching with Soul

#8 Steve Wheeler

#9 The Broad Foundation

#10 The JLV

#11 Feed the Teacher

#12 Digital Promise

#13 NAF

#14 Jennifer Carey

#15 High Tech High

#16 Dan Brown

#17 Big Picture Learning

#18 IDEA Public Schools

#19 Fractus Learning

#20 Learning Accelerator

Conclusion

It is easy to think of Twitter as a shallow method of communicating when used right; Twitter can actually be a highly effective way of reaching thousands or millions of people. For those in K-12 education, it is a boon to ensure that you are keeping current with all of the latest changes, trends, and information.

January 31, 2017

The Edvocate’s List of 20 Must-Follow Early Childhood Education Twitter Feeds

Early education is a time when parents and teachers are just getting accustomed to working together. Young students are starting to feel a little independence as they go out into a world where their parents do not follow for a few hours of the day. Other times, parents are actively engaged and dedicating a lot of their time to helping their young child learn.

Whatever method you use, it can be very scary trying to make sure your child is prepared for academic success. The best way of learning what to do (and what not to do) is through seeing what others have done before you. That is where Twitter can be immensely helpful – if you know where to go. The following are 20 of the best Twitter Feeds about early childhood education that will help both parents and teachers. Some of these are inspirational, others are humorous (because that is required on tough days), and many are a combination of both.

The list focuses on the following two aspects.

The feeds must be relevant to early childhood education.
It must be active, so you can come back to them on a regular basis for more ideas instead of waiting for months or years.

#1 Teaching Strategies

#2 Teach Preschool

#3 Early Childhood Ed

#4 Vanessa Levin

#5 Preschoolers

#6 Thomas Hobson

#7 Literacy Launchpad

#8 One Two Tie My Shoe

#9 Mark Weston

#10 Lisa Guernsey

#11 Kara-Noel

#12 No Flash Cards

#13 Karen Nemeth

#14 CBADOV

#15 Mom Spark

#16 Kristen Howerton

#17 ECE Webinars

#18 NAEYC

#19 Brain Parade

#20 Cooney Center

Conclusion

Twitter has evolved beyond the simple world of just providing a source of entertainment, and now is a fantastic tool for getting a glimpse at everything going on in education. As someone dealing with young children, you probably do not have the time to sift through all of the potential sites that may help. This list will help you focus on what matters and help you stay current on how you teach your children.

December 1, 2016

Early childhood educators rely on families to prop up low income, research finds

This article was written by Paula McDonald, Karen Thorpe, and Susan Irvine

Early childhood educators struggling in low-paid jobs often have to prop up their income through family members and/or partners, new research shows.

Wages for qualified early childhood teachers have improved over time. However, incomes of those with vocational qualifications, including diplomas and certificates, remain low and do not reflect the responsibilities that characterise the role.

Certificate III-qualified educators, who assist in the design and delivery of educational programs, are paid A$753 per week before tax. This is considerably below the average weekly earnings of $1,137 across all occupations.

The difference between the pay rates of certificate-qualified early childhood educators and the Australian national minimum wage of $17.29 per hour before tax is minimal.

Dissatisfied with pay and conditions

Many early years educators believe their pay is too low. This is a view shared by politicians, including Tanya Plibersek and Sarah Hanson-Young, unions and an increasing number of peak bodies and employers.

The 2013 National Early Childhood Education and Care Census reported that 87% of educator respondents indicated satisfaction with their job, but half were dissatisfied with pay and conditions.

Another survey of educators who had left the sector found that low pay had influenced the decision to leave.

In any one day, early childhood educators may undertake a range of tasks requiring different skills. These include observing and interacting with children, planning and implementing the curriculum, engaging with parents, including referring them to other services, and other care activities such as preparing meals, changing nappies and cleaning.

Educators said that their daily work exposed them to health risks such as acquiring illnesses when children were unwell.

Significant physical demands were also reported. These included lifting children, as well as furniture and equipment. Receiving a decent day’s pay was considered a reasonable expectation for these physical requirements and risks.

They also compared their pay to the hours they worked. Although weekend work and work after 6.30pm should be paid at 150-200%, we found many examples of educators who worked unpaid hours.

Typically, this involved preparing learning materials at home in the evenings for the next day, attending professional development after hours, or community liaison work on the weekends. This kind of unpaid work is also common for other educators, such as schoolteachers.

Why retention is still high

Although pay is low, early years educators often rationalise their decision to stay in the sector as essentially a vocational choice.

Many argued that their desire to assist children to develop and learn trumped the pursuit of money in occupational decisions. But this happened only when educators had access to alternative sources of household incomes to cover basic necessities such as rent or mortgage payments, food and child-rearing expenses.

To cover these expenses, additional household income is often needed. For some, this is derived from partners who earn higher incomes in other occupations and hence offset their low wages. Others describe the importance of financial support from parents, ex-partners and other extended family members.

While increased demand has led to improvement in wages for early childhood teachers, this is not the case for all educators in long day care.

Shallow pay structures, the costs of study for educators earning near minimum wage, as well as inflexible training programs, constrain the process of professionalisation of this workforce.

Yet this remains an important goal for the sector, because staff qualifications strongly impact the quality of care and education provided to young children.

Policy needs to redress low pay

Developing effective policy in the early childhood education and care sector needs to address more than just issues of access and costs to parents and the government.

A critical, but often invisible, part of delivering effective early years education and care is about ensuring fairness for the workforce itself.

The idea of fairness and equality is especially important when we consider that the sector is staffed almost exclusively by women.

The very low proportion of men working in the sector, reported at around 3%, is likely to be a consequence of low pay.

It may also be part of the cause. Highly feminised sectors of the labour market are often low-paid. Examples include librarians, community service workers and retail service assistants. This situation needs to change.

In economic terms, the broader conversation about financing early years education and care should acknowledge that the sector is financed not only by governments and parents, but also propped up financially by members of educators’ households.

Where additional household income is not available, such as when educators do not have partners or families to partially support them, the educators themselves bear the cost of early years education.

Paula McDonald, Professor of Work and Organisation, ARC Future Fellow, Queensland University of Technology; Karen Thorpe, Professor, Psychology, Queensland University of Technology, and Susan Irvine, Associate Professor, School of Early Childhood, QUT Caboolture, Queensland University of Technology

This article was originally published on The Conversation. Read the original article.

November 28, 2016

Understanding Three Key Classroom Management Theories

By Tricia Hussung

How teachers manage their classrooms is an important part of achieving an effective learning environment. Educators know that all students learn differently, and choosing the right instructional style can mitigate behavioral issues and make good instruction possible. According to the National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality, a significant body of research also demonstrates that classroom organization and the ability to effectively manage student behavior “significantly influence the persistence of new teachers in teaching careers.” Within this context, it is clear that instructional theory and classroom management strategies are among the most important aspects of teacher education.

While classroom management theory is constantly evolving, there are three key theorists who stand out when it comes to modern education. Throughout the 20^th and 21^st centuries, experts like B.F. Skinner, William Glasser and Alfie Kohn revolutionized the ways that teachers deliver education. Understanding their theories can help educators define their own classroom management methods and make decisions about how to best approach interactions with students.

B.F. Skinner’s contribution to learning theory can’t be overstated. His work is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. According to Skinner, changes in behavior are a result of individuals’ responses to events, or stimuli, that occur in their environment. When a stimulus-response (S-R) pattern is rewarded, the individual is conditioned to respond similarly in the future. The key to Skinner’s theory is reinforcement, or anything that strengthens the desired response. This could include praise, good grades, a reward or even a feeling of accomplishment. Of course, negative reinforcement occurs when a stimulus results in increased response when it is withdrawn. The central tenet of Skinner’s work is that positively reinforced behavior will reoccur. This is why information is presented in small amounts. Responses can be reinforced, and reinforcement will be applied to similar stimuli.

Skinner’s work in operant conditioning has been integrated into both classroom management and instructional development. When applied to programmed instruction, the following should occur:

Practice should occur in a question-answer format that exposes students to information gradually through a series of steps.
The learner should respond each time and receive immediate feedback.
Good performance should be paired with secondary reinforcers like praise, prizes and good grades.
Instructors should try to arrange questions by difficulty so the response is always correct, creating positive enforcement.

There are many obvious ways that Skinner’s work has been directly incorporated into modern school systems. Though rewards were utilized for good behavior long before Skinner, many behavior management systems utilized in today’s classrooms are influenced by his theories. Teachers utilize immediate praise, feedback or rewards when seeking to change problematic student behavior, and some even use “token economies” to reward students in a systematic way.

William Glasser coined the term “choice theory” in 1998. In general, this theory states that all we do is behave. Glasser suggests that almost all behavior is chosen, and we are driven by genetics to satisfy five basic needs: survival, love and belonging, power, freedom and fun. In choice theory, the most important need is love and belonging because connectedness with others is required as a basis in satisfying all other needs. The classroom should therefore be a needs-satisfying place for students.

Glasser’s work impacts learning theory in a variety of ways. It has been utilized in schools across the globe and has changed the ways that teachers deliver instruction.

First, Glasser identifies teachers as managers who need to work effectively if they want to successfully teach their students. The role of teachers as managers requires them to guide students in understanding that working hard and being obedient is worth it and will have a positive influence on their lives. Teachers can achieve this through developing positive relationships with students and creating active, relevant learning experiences that enable students to demonstrate mastery and success.

When it comes to developing lessons, teachers who practice choice theory work to make sure that student classroom activities are designed to satisfy the students’ needs. This allows learning to increase while diminishing disruption. Students are able to “connect, feel a sense of competence and power, have some freedom, and enjoy themselves in a safe, secure environment,” according to Funderstanding. There are three common characteristics of classrooms and schools that apply choice theory:

Coercion is minimized because it never inspires quality. Students aren’t “made” to behave using rewards and punishments. Instead, teachers build positive relationships with their students and manage them.
Teachers focus on quality. They expect mastery of concepts and encourage students to redo their work and try again until they have demonstrated competence and high-quality work. The emphasis is on deep learning through application.
Self-evaluation is common. Students are provided with helpful information and take ownership of their learning by evaluating their own performance. This promotes responsibility and helps students reach goals while becoming skilled decision-makers who are actively involved in their own education.

Alfie Kohn’s work critiques many aspects of traditional education, namely the use of competition or external factors as motivation. Kohn maintains that societies based on extrinsic motivation always become inefficient over time. He questions the hierarchical structures at work in mainstream education. Positions of authority are “unnaturally scarce,” and such systems assume that all people have a competitive nature. He argues that positive enforcement only encourages students to seek out more positive enforcement, rather than truly learn. Kohn believes that the ideal classroom emphasizes curiosity and cooperation above all, and that the student’s curiosity should determine what is taught. Because of this, he argues that standards should be kept very minimal and is critical of standardized testing. Kohn also argues that a strict curriculum and homework are counterintuitive to student needs. When it comes to classroom management, Kohn believes that most teachers rely too heavily on extrinsic motivation rather than more intrinsic factors. He suggests teachers keep cooperation in mind because when curiosity is nurtured, rewards and punishments aren’t necessary.

To implement Kohn’s approaches in the classroom, teachers can allow students to explore the topics that interest them most. Students “should be able to think and write and explore without worrying about how good they are,” he suggests. In general, Kohn believes that there is too much emphasis on achievement rather than the learning process. He emphasizes that not all students learn at the same pace, and standards do not take this into account. In general, Kohn believes in classrooms where the student is at the center of everything. Ideally, such a classroom would feature:

Multiple activity centers with various classroom structures for group work
Displays of student projects
Students exchanging ideas
A respectful teacher mingling with students
Students excited about learning and actively asking questions
Multiple activities occurring at the same time

In terms of modern school systems, Kohn’s approaches are more consistent with those used in elementary classrooms. The key element is a “shift from a quiet, well-managed classroom to one that is lively and features an emphasis on student learning,” explains Thomas Hanson on OpenEducation.net.

When educators are able to focus on classroom organization as a means of behavior management, they achieve better results for students. If you are interested in education topics like this, consider the online Master of Education from Husson University. Graduate-level education is ideal for teachers looking to advance their career and become leaders in the classroom and beyond. In addition, this degree program is ideal for individuals interested in becoming curriculum/instructional specialists, corporate trainers, course designers, education policy developers or adjunct faculty members.

Regardless of your professional focus, Husson’s program helps educators develop successful learning techniques through an inquiry-based approach. You can learn more about this fully online program here.

November 27, 2016

Here’s how witnessing violence harms children’s mental health

Daniel J. Flannery, Case Western Reserve University and Mark I. Singer, Case Western Reserve University

Caroline was having a hard time getting her daughter to go to school. The night before, her daughter saw the news about a terrorist bombing that had occurred that day where several children and adults were killed and schools were immediately closed.

Her daughter had a difficult time sleeping and was refusing to eat her breakfast. When Caroline asked her daughter what was wrong, she replied in a hushed tone,

I’m scared mommy. If I go to school, will somebody come in and shoot me? I don’t want to die.”

As researchers and clinicians who have studied the problem of violence over the past three decades, we have witnessed a steady increase in levels of children’s exposure to violence and its damaging effect on their mental health.

How does this exposure to violence affect children and adolescents – especially their mental health? And how should we handle the increased fear and insecurity that results from such events?

Exposure to violence

Today, children use many different forms of media and at unprecedented levels – 92 percent of teens go online daily and 24 percent are online constantly. As a result, children get exposed to violence through multiple media. So, even when violence happens in another part of the world, children are exposed to the event and its consequences immediately, intensely and repeatedly as a result of media exposure.

And there is increasing evidence that exposure to violence in everyday life has a significant impact on children’s mental health.

But then, children today are growing up in a world where fear and insecurity rule over confidence and safety. This is not just driven by media but also by what they experience in the real world.

So, in addition to terrorist acts, children could witness or be victims of violence in many other ways. For example, when we surveyed high school students, between 13 and 45 percent reported they had been beaten up at school. Between 23 and 82 percent said they had witnessed someone else being beaten up at school in the past year.

We have also seen how school shootings with multiple victims have increased in prevalence in the past five years.

Here is what happens to children

Children who report high levels of exposure to violence (either as witness or victim) report the highest levels of depression, anger and anxiety.

Our study with children in grades three to eight who witnessed someone being hit, slapped, or punched found that 12 percent of these children reported levels of anxiety that could require treatment.

Similarly, six months after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, a survey of over 8,000 New York City students in grades four through 12 showed that nearly 30 percent of children reported symptoms of anxiety or depression.

Exposure to violence can have consequences for younger children and adolescents. Samantha Dunne, CC BY-NC-SA

Exposure to violence could have other long-term impacts as well: children could get desensitized to violence and its effects. Studies have shown how children can get desensitized to violence: that is, children can come to believe that violence is an acceptable way to solve problems and that it is without consequence. They could also come to believe that violence could happen anywhere and to anyone at any time.

Further, such children are also at a risk of perpetrating violence against others.

Our studies have shown that children who witness or are victimized by violence are more aggressive toward others. These children also show problematic levels of post-traumatic stress symptoms.

We have consistently found relationships between violence exposure and trauma symptoms, whether we surveyed children in schools, youth in the community or juveniles who were receiving treatment as a result of diversion from the prison system.

Adolescents exposed to high levels of violence reported higher levels of anger and depression. They also reported higher rates of wanting to hurt or kill themselves compared to adolescents in lower violence exposure groups.

Media exposure

More recent studies have confirmed that high exposure to television violence for children and adolescents is also associated with higher levels of aggression and violent behavior. Exposure to violence shown through media is consistently associated with problem behaviors, such as increases in aggression and anxiety. Children could also end up with lower empathy and compassion for others.

Some children exposed to various forms of media violence (not just television violence but violence on the Internet, in movies and in video games) can come to view the world as a mean, scary place where they are not safe and they can do little to protect themselves from harm. This is a particular problem for very young children such as those under the age of six who have difficulty distinguishing reality from fantasy.

Children are being exposed to violence through the various media. Brad Flickinger, CC BY

Exposure to violence could harm the emotional and mental development of young children and adolescents. Children at that age aren’t able to effectively process what they are seeing and hearing. This may be due in part to the fact that chronic exposure to violence can affect parts of their brain.

For adolescents, the front part of their brains is the last to develop and mature. This part of the brain is called the prefrontal cortex, and it is responsible for processing information, impulse control and reasoning. Adolescents exposed to violent video games experience a decrease in activity in their prefrontal cortex, leaving them more vulnerable to having difficulty with problem-solving and controlling their emotions.

What can parents do?

Parents have an important role to play. Knowing where their children are, what they are doing and with whom are some of the best ways to help support children. That improves their ability to cope with what is going on in the world around them.

The same is true for adolescents as well. It is sometimes assumed that as children reach adolescence, they need less support and monitoring as they spend more time with their peers and make increased demands to be more independent.

That is not the case.

Adolescents have more access to social media, to drugs and alcohol, and to transportation. Coupled with this is the growing evidence that the problem-solving and impulse control parts of their brains are not yet fully developed.

Parents are often the first to recognize their children are struggling with mental health and behavioral issues. And they could be the best providers of mental health first aid whenever and however their children need them.

Daniel J. Flannery, Professor and Director of the Begun Center for Violence Prevention Research and Education, Case Western Reserve University and Mark I. Singer, Professor of Family and Child Welfare, Case Western Reserve University

This article was originally published on The Conversation. Read the original article.